Urban societies had social stratification and well-planned cities; they practised crafts, engaged in trade, adopted science and technology and formed political organisation (an early form of state). Hence the term 'civilisation' is used to distinguish them from early forms of society – though they should not be considered superior, since each culture had its own unique features. The Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese and Indus were the important early civilisations. During their time, South India witnessed Neolithic agro-pastoral communities and a Microlithic way of life by hunter-gatherers.
1. The Four Early Civilisations at a Glance
| Civilisation | River(s) | Script | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|---|
| Egyptian | Nile | Hieroglyphic | Solar calendar, pyramids, mummies, sundial, water clock, glass |
| Mesopotamian | Euphrates and Tigris | Cuneiform | Potter's wheel, 360-day calendar, circle of 360 units, Hammurabi's law code |
| Chinese | Huang He (Yellow River) and Yangtze | Pictographic, later symbol form | Paper, gun powder, Silk Road, improved writing system |
| Indus (Harappan) | Indus | Not yet deciphered | Planned towns, standard weights, seals, bronze dancing girl |