English education, introduced to produce clerks, also produced a new English-educated middle class influenced by western ideas and Christianity. This class led political and reform movements, trying to harmonise Indian and Western cultures, and helped mitigate social evils such as sati, female infanticide and child marriage.
1. Two Kinds of Religious Reform
| Reformist movements | Revivalist movements |
|---|---|
| Brahmo Samaj | Arya Samaj |
| Prarthana Samaj | Ramakrishna Mission |
| Aligarh Movement | Deoband Movement |
The oppressive social structure was also challenged by Jyotiba Phule in Pune, Narayana Guru and Ayyankali in Kerala, and Ramalinga Adigal and Iyothee Thassar of Tamil Nadu.
2. Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj
- Rammohan Roy (1772–1833) knew Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, English and Bengali. Influenced by monotheism and anti-idolatry, he argued from the Upanishads that all ancient Hindu texts preached worship of one God.
- He published tracts against sati, child marriage and polygamy, advocated widow remarriage and education for women, and supported English and western sciences in schools.
- His campaign played a key role in Governor-General William Bentinck's legislation abolishing sati in 1829.
- He founded the Brahmo Samaj on 20 August 1828 and opened a temple in Calcutta with no image. The Samaj forbade idol-worship; its appeal remained limited to intellectuals and enlightened Bengalis.